India is a land of unparalleled linguistic diversity, a treasure trove of 22 official languages recognized in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution and hundreds of dialects. This linguistic richness is not just a part but a cornerstone of India’s cultural identity. Yet, in recent decades, an increasing push for imposing Hindi as the national language has led to widespread discord. However, the resilience of many non-Hindi-speaking states, who have resisted efforts to prioritize Hindi over their native languages, is an inspiring testament to their commitment to safeguarding this invaluable diversity.
The debate over Hindi imposition is not new. It has roots in India’s pre-independence era and has sparked multiple agitations, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Today, it remains a contentious issue, with government policies such as the National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 and Hindi-centric job recruitment exams reigniting tensions. This growing dominance of Hindi has created political and cultural rifts and led to the decline of several indigenous languages and dialects.Historical Context: Tamil Nadu’s Anti-Hindi Agitation
The 1937 Anti-Hindi Agitation. The resistance against Hindi imposition in Tamil Nadu dates back to 1937, when the Madras Presidency, under C. Rajagopalachari, attempted to introduce Hindi as a compulsory subject in schools. This move was seen as an attempt to diminish the importance of Tamil, one of the world’s oldest languages with a rich literary tradition. Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, the leader of the Dravidian movement, led large-scale protests, arguing that Hindi was being imposed as a tool of North Indian cultural dominance. The agitation was so intense that the decision was later revoked.
The 1965 Anti-Hindi Agitation. The most significant resistance against Hindi imposition occurred in 1965 when the central government attempted to make Hindi the sole official language of India. The move was met with fierce opposition in Tamil Nadu, where student protests turned violent, leading to deaths and mass arrests. The agitation was so severe that the central government was forced to enact the Official Languages Act of 1967, which ensured that English would continue as an associate official language alongside Hindi.
Tamil Nadu’s resistance shaped India’s language policy, reinforcing the importance of linguistic diversity. However, the debate has resurfaced in recent years, with several government policies perceived as attempts to enforce Hindi at the expense of regional languages.Current Concerns: The Renewed Push for Hindi
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 initially proposed a three-language formula that required students to learn Hindi, English, and one regional language. However, non-Hindi-speaking states saw this as a covert attempt to force Hindi on South Indian and northeastern students. After widespread protests, the policy was modified to allow states to choose their language preferences. Yet, concerns remain over how Hindi is subtly promoted in school curriculums at the expense of regional languages.
Government Job Exams and Recruitment Policies. Many government job exams, including those conducted by the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC), Indian Railways, and banking sectors, unfairly advantage Hindi speakers.
- In states like Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and West Bengal, aspirants who do not know Hindi face barriers in recruitment for central government positions.
- The emphasis on Hindi in administrative exams has led to the exclusion of non-Hindi speakers from crucial government roles, reinforcing perceptions of discrimination.
Decline of Regional Languages in Education, Media, and Governance
- Many non-Hindi languages are now taught less frequently in schools, leading to language attrition among younger generations.
- Hindi is increasingly becoming the default language in central government communications, alienating millions of non-Hindi speakers.
- The media landscape, dominated by Hindi news channels and Bollywood, further marginalizes regional cinema and literature.
Languages and Dialects Lost or Endangered Due to Hindi Imposition
The aggressive promotion of Hindi has negatively impacted several indigenous languages and dialects, many of which are now either extinct or endangered—some of the significant languages affected.
Bhojpuri, Maithili, Magahi, and Angika (Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh). Historically spoken by millions, these languages are now categorized as “non-standard Hindi,” reducing their literary and official recognition. Despite its strong cultural identity, Bhojpuri is often seen as a Hindi dialect rather than an independent language. Efforts to revive these languages face resistance due to Hindi’s overwhelming dominance in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Marwari, Shekhawati, and Mewari (Rajasthan). Despite having deep historical and literary significance, these languages are increasingly absorbed into Hindi. Younger generations are shifting to Hindi and English, causing a gradual decline in Rajasthan’s linguistic diversity.
Garhwali and Kumaoni (Uttarakhand). These languages are now classified as Hindi dialects in government records, even though they have distinct identities. There is no significant push for their preservation, leading to a generational gap in language fluency.
Tulu (Karnataka, Kerala). Tulu, spoken by over 2.5 million people, is not included in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution, denying it official recognition. Despite its rich oral and literary tradition, Hindi’s prominence at the national level has overshadowed efforts to promote Tulu.
Manipuri (Manipur). Hindi is increasingly promoted in Manipur, leading to resentment among native speakers. Many Manipuri youth are shifting to Hindi or English for better career opportunities, causing language attrition.
Ho, Mundari, and Santali (Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal). Tribal languages like Ho and Mundari are at risk due to the overwhelming presence of Hindi in education and administration. Despite receiving official recognition, Santali remains underrepresented in educational curricula and government services.
The Way Forward: A Multilingual Approach to Governance. The following steps should be taken to maintain national unity while respecting linguistic diversity.
- Equal Status for All Regional Languages. The government must treat all Eighth Schedule languages equally and not promote Hindi at the expense of others.
- Promotion of Multilingual Education. Schools across India, including Hindi-speaking states, should offer regional languages as subjects to promote linguistic harmony.
- Decentralization of Language Policy. State governments should have greater autonomy in determining language policies rather than following central mandates.
- Encouragement of Reciprocal Learning. If Tamil Nadu and Karnataka students learn Hindi, then Uttar Pradesh and Bihar students should also learn Tamil, Kannada, or Bengali.
- Official Communication in Multiple Languages. Government offices should provide services in English and regional rather than making Hindi the default language.
National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: A Critical Analysis in the Context of India’s Federal Structure
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is a landmark reform introduced by the Government of India, replacing the 1986 National Policy on Education. It aims to overhaul India’s education system by focusing on multidisciplinary learning, skill development, and accessibility. However, implementing the policy has raised concerns due to its centralized approach, potentially infringing upon the federal structure of India’s governance.
A key question is whether education is a Central or State subject under the Constitution of India. While education was originally a State subject under the Government of India Act of 1935, the 42nd Amendment in 1976 moved it to the Concurrent List, giving both the Centre and the States power to legislate on educational matters. This shift has led to tensions between Central policies and State autonomy, especially in the case of language policy, curriculum structure, and governance of institutions.
Key Features of NEP 2020
The National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 introduced several structural reforms to make India’s education system more holistic, inclusive, and globally competitive. Some of its most notable provisions include:
- New Pedagogical Structure. 5+3+3+4 Model. It replaces the 10+2 system with a 5+3+3+4 structure, aligning with the age groups of 3-8, 8-11, 11-14, and 14-18. Focuses on early childhood care and education (ECCE) for foundational learning.
- Universalization of Education. The target is to achieve a 100% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) in school education by 2030. Bringing back dropouts through open schooling, vocational training, and flexible learning methods.
Medium of Instruction: Promotion of Mother Tongue
The mother tongue or regional language should be used as the medium of instruction until at least Class 5, preferably until Class 8. The focus is on multilingualism, but Hindi is given greater emphasis, leading to concerns about linguistic imposition.
- Higher Education Reforms. Higher education institutions should have the autonomy to phase out affiliation-based college structures, and Multidisciplinary Education and Research Universities (MERUs) should be established as models of excellence.
- Standard Entrance Tests for University Admissions. The introduction of a National Testing Agency (NTA) to conduct standard entrance exams for university admissions.
- Focus on Vocational and Skill-Based Learning. Integration of vocational education from Class 6 onwards, with mandatory internships and apprenticeships.
- Restructuring of the Regulatory Framework. The University Grants Commission (UGC) and the All-India Council for Technical Education (AICTE) will be dissolved, and a single Higher Education Commission of India (HECI) will be established.
- Increased Digital and Online Learning. Digital learning platforms, including Diksha, SWAYAM, and the National Educational Technology Forum (NETF), have expanded.
- No Rigid Streams—Multidisciplinary Approach. Students can choose subjects across different streams (e.g., a science student can take Humanities courses).
- Internationalization of Education. Allowing foreign universities to establish campuses in India while also encouraging Indian universities to go global.
Merits of NEP 2020
- Holistic and Flexible Learning
- The 5+3+3+4 model ensures that children receive foundational learning early.
- Emphasizes critical thinking, creativity, and problem-solving rather than rote memorization.
- Promotion of Regional Languages
- The focus on the mother tongue as the medium of instruction is beneficial for cognitive development.
- Encourages multilingual education, preserving linguistic diversity.
- Skill Development and Vocational Training
- Integrating vocational training from Class 6 onwards ensures students are job-ready by graduation.
- Provides students with internship and apprenticeship opportunities, making them more employable.
- Digital Transformation of Education
- Expand e-learning opportunities, ensuring accessibility to education in remote and underdeveloped areas.
- Platforms like SWAYAM and NETF provide affordable and high-quality online courses.
- Autonomy of Higher Educational Institutions
- Universities can now design their curriculum without bureaucratic interference.
- Encourages multidisciplinary research, crucial for India’s global competitiveness.
Demerits of NEP 2020 in India’s Federal Structure
Centralization of Education Policy. NEP 2020 heavily centralizes decision-making, reducing the autonomy of State governments in implementing education policies. The dissolution of UGC and AICTE puts educational governance directly under central control.
Imposition of Hindi on Non-Hindi States. The three-language formula favors Hindi over regional languages, leading to a backlash in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and West Bengal. Northern states do not reciprocate by learning southern or northeastern languages, creating an imbalance.
Standard Entrance Tests—A Disadvantage for Rural and Regional Students. A single national university entrance exam creates barriers for rural students lacking coaching facilities. The removal of state-level exams undermines the autonomy of regional universities.
Digital Divide and Accessibility Issues. Rural India lacks adequate internet infrastructure, making digital learning inaccessible to many students. The high cost of online education tools may widen the gap between urban and rural students.
Funding Challenges. The policy aims for 6% of GDP investment in education, but current spending remains at less than 3%, making implementation difficult. States are financially burdened, as many provisions require additional funding without adequate central support.
Is the Right to Education a Central or State Subject?
Constitutional Position. Before 1976, education was a state subject, meaning only state governments had legislative powers over education. The 42nd Amendment Act of 1976 moved education to the Concurrent List, allowing both the Centre and States to legislate on education.
The Right to Education (RTE) Act of 2009. It made elementary education a fundamental right under Article 21A. The central government sets the policy framework, but state governments implement it, making it a joint responsibility.
Issues in Federal Implementation. State governments argue that excessive centralization under policies like NEP 2020 undermines their autonomy. Differences in resources between states mean uneven implementation of national policies.
Conclusion
The NEP 2020 is an ambitious and transformative policy that has the potential to modernize India’s education system. However, its centralized nature raises concerns about state autonomy and linguistic inclusivity. Despite its significant benefits in flexibility, skill development, and digital education, its universal approach might not be suitable for all states.
For effective implementation, the Centre must collaborate with states to ensure equitable resource distribution and accommodate regional linguistic preferences. Only through true cooperative federalism can India build an inclusive, accessible, high-quality education system.
India’s linguistic diversity is one of its greatest strengths, yet the imposition of Hindi on non-Hindi-speaking states threatens to create deep divisions. Many historically significant languages and dialects have already been lost or are on the verge of extinction due to policies prioritizing Hindi.
A genuinely united India must respect all languages and ensure that no citizen feels like a linguistic outsider in their own country. Language should be a bridge, not a barrier. If India is to thrive as a federal democracy, it must embrace linguistic pluralism rather than imposing homogeneity. Only through a fair and balanced approach can India ensure that language remains a source of unity, not discord.